{
  "issue_key": "vol05-no1-2017",
  "volume": 5,
  "number": 1,
  "season": "Summer 2017",
  "year": 2017,
  "sequence": 10,
  "type": "research-article",
  "section": "Research Article",
  "title": "Education for All or Just for the Smartest Poor?",
  "subtitle": null,
  "slug": "education-for-all-or-just-for-the-smartest-poor",
  "corporate_author": null,
  "authors": [
    {
      "given_name": "Helen",
      "family_name": "Abadzi",
      "credentials": "Dr., PhD",
      "affiliation": null,
      "email": "habadzi@gmail.com",
      "orcid": null,
      "is_corresponding": true,
      "sequence": 1
    }
  ],
  "abstract": "Test results in many lower-income countries in Africa as well as in Latin America show that the percentage of students meeting achievement criteria (however defined) is often 15% or less. World Bank evaluation missions often find public-school students in these countries who cannot read fluently until grades 4-6. Particularly in francophone Africa, cohorts of functionally illiterate students may be graduating. An important reason is wastage of instructional time and limited basic skills practice, particularly in the schools of the poor. They may be open only 70% of the expected days, instructional time may be split to accommodate all who enroll, teachers may be absent 25-30% of the days the schools are open, and significent portion of class time may be spent on copying. When an official language of instruction has complex spelling (e.g. English and French) students may not learn reading well enough in the short class time to learn material in it during primary school. Also, teaching methods may not be very helpful in consolidating the learned material and enabling its use it when needed. The ‘Education for All’ (EFA) initiative includes donor aid to expand access and enable all the world’s children to complete primary school by 2015. But the average brain cannot learn the national curricula in the timeframe that some low-income schools provide. Thus, these schools mainly benefit those who are smarter or better off. Financing gaps for various countries have not been calculated by taking instructional deficiencies into account. To provide basic skills just to 85% of the students, the real costs of EFA may be 4-5 times greater than projected. The donor community should insist on financing country programs that use school time productively and facilitate information processing for the poorest students.",
  "keywords": [
    "access",
    "equal opportunity",
    "low income",
    "poor",
    "Primary education",
    "smart"
  ],
  "first_page": 40,
  "last_page": 55,
  "pdf_start": 39,
  "pdf_end": 54,
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    }
  ],
  "notes": [
    "²⁸ Dr. Helen Abadzi is an educational psychologist and was the senior evaluation officer at the Operations Evaluation Department of the World Bank. A native of Greece and a polyglot, she is interested in applying the research findings of cognitive neuroscience to improve outcomes in the classrooms of the poor. Dr. Abadzi’s correspondence address is habadzi@gmail.com",
    "²⁹ In private correspondence Dr. Abadzi advises ‘The article provides an outlook of 2003. I wrote it when I was an evaluator at the World Bank and was surprised to find how little of the donor money was getting converted into information in students' brains. Since then, an entire testing industry has arisen to document the poor outcomes. Scores of peer-reviewed articles and publications have confirmed that schools in poor countries teach too little content, so inevitably teachers interact with those few smarter or more privileged children that can learn it with minimal exposure’.",
    "³⁰ OED is a semi-autonomous department of the World Bank that conducts project performance appraisal reviews of many completed projects. Missions that document education project results, typically make unannounced visits to beneficiary schools at random. Due to time limitations, schools near roads are often visited, so samples may focus on better-than-average schools.",
    "³¹ Absolute test scores are not comparable, but one can compare the percentage of students meeting the developers’ criteria, however set.",
    "³² E.g. Italian children achieve near perfect mastery of coding skills around the middle or close to the end of the first grade (Harris and Hatano 1999, p 17). In the US, children need longer to become expert decoders, but they so by grade 4 (Royer 1997).",
    "³³ Project in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). 2001. National Center for Educational Statistics.www.pirls.org; http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/resources.asp",
    "³⁴ For example, experiments with groups of poor Indian children teaching themselves to use public computers have shown striking results when group interaction is combined with pattern recognition and fine motor coordination, that have not been put sufficiently to educational use. (http://www.niitholeinthewall.com)",
    "³⁵ This method prescribes in considerable detail what teachers say to students and the responses expected; it has raised test scores in the US but is rarely used in other countries (for information see the National Association for Direct Instruction, www.nifdi.org, www.adihome.org)",
    "³⁶ Ideally, instruction in a mother tongue should be used not merely to transition into a foreign language but also to learn the mother tongue.",
    "³⁷ Considering 70% of school days in operation, 75% teacher absenteeism, and about 25% use of class time engaged in learning.",
    "³⁸ According to Oxfam International, in November 2003, Gambia still needed $26.3m, Guyana $27.2, Honduras $60.2m, Mauritania $9.2m, Mozambique $264.2m, Nicaragua $64.1m, Niger $66.8m and Yemen $96m. Without these funds 100 million children lack access to education and another 150 million will be unable to complete primary school. It would take an additional $5.6 billion in aid to ensure that every child could go to school, which is the equivalent of just three days’ global military spending. However, donors provide only $1.4billion annually. (“Donors at Norway education meeting let down the world’s children.” Press Release, 22 November 2003; http://www.oxfam.org/eng/pr031122_educ_norway.htm)",
    "³⁹ Twenty-eight countries are at a high risk of not achieving EFA. These include sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia and cover 25% of the world’s population (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2002, p. 16).",
    "⁴⁰ Silent reading norms in the United States are: Second grade 60–100 words per minute, third grade 90–120, fourth grade 110–140, fifth grade 140–170, and six grade 160–190 words per minute. Oral reading norm for grade 1 is 30–70 words per minute. (Barr et al. 2002, p. 76)",
    "⁴¹ This percentage roughly covers students with abilities from –1 standard deviation under a normal curve.",
    "⁴² Produced by the US-based Leapfrog (www.leapfrog.com), similarly by Fisher Price (fisher-price.com)",
    "⁴³ Some World Bank staff (including the author) are carrying out research in 2004-2005 on improving time use through a grant from the Dutch government and collaboration with UNESCO’s International Bureau of Education."
  ],
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      "kind": "table",
      "file": "figures/table-01-p41.png",
      "caption": "Fig. 1. Percentage of students meeting test developers’ criteria. Source: Uganda - National Assessment of Performance in Education, 1999 (cited in OED 2004b)",
      "pdf_page": 41,
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          "",
          "14.9%"
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          "Gr. 4",
          "",
          ""
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          "",
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          "",
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          "15%",
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          "",
          "17.2%"
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    {
      "kind": "figure",
      "file": "figures/fig-02-p42.png",
      "caption": "Fig 2. Instructional Time Wastage (modeled from classroom observations)",
      "pdf_page": 42,
      "text_in_image": "Class time as allotted by a government | Remaining after school closures (strikes, weather, teacher training, extra | holidays) | Remaining after teacher absenteeism | Remaining after student absenteeism | Class time devoted to | any learning task | Learning time | relevant to | curriculum"
    },
    {
      "kind": "table",
      "file": "figures/table-03-p43.png",
      "caption": "Table 1: Instructional Time Indicators in Basic Education of some Middle East Countries",
      "pdf_page": 43,
      "rows": [
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          "Egypt",
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          "1140"
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          "845"
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          "768",
          "553",
          "649",
          "739"
        ]
      ]
    },
    {
      "kind": "table",
      "file": "figures/table-04-p48.png",
      "caption": "Text Box 1: Can “All” Realistically Attain The “Education for All” Goals?",
      "pdf_page": 48,
      "rows": [
        [
          "1.",
          "Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children;"
        ],
        [
          "2.",
          "Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances, and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality;"
        ],
        [
          "3.",
          "Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access;"
        ],
        [
          "4.",
          "Achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults;"
        ],
        [
          "5.",
          "Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to basic education of good quality;"
        ],
        [
          "6.",
          "Improving all aspects of the quality of education so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills."
        ]
      ]
    },
    {
      "kind": "figure",
      "file": "figures/fig-05-p51.png",
      "caption": "Fig 3: Some Determinants of Educational Outcomes",
      "pdf_page": 51,
      "text_in_image": "Developmental | delays | Limited teaching | time | Low | achievement | Cannot | test scores | Limited practice | Low | Cannot | understand text | reading | process | later, e.g. do math | skills in | volume | problems in grade | gr. 1-2 | of text | 3 | Spelling | Limited basic | complexities | skills | on | graduation | Instruction in a | second | language | Methods | unsuitable for | the poor"
    }
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  "manifest_notes": "Author line 'Dr. Helen Abadzi, PhD 28/29'. Footnote 28: 'Dr. Helen Abadzi is an educational psychologist and was the senior evaluation officer at the Operations Evaluation Department of the World Bank. ... Dr. Abadzi’s correspondence address is habadzi@gmail.com' (a former World Bank role, so affiliation left null). Footnote 29: the author says the article 'provides an outlook of 2003' - an updated republication of a 2003 paper. Policy/evidence essay; could also be typed review-article. Margins differ from the rest of the issue (columns at x~64/312 on PDF pp.39-48, x~71/316 later). 'Fig. 1. Percentage of students meeting test developers’ criteria' PDF p.41 (vector bar chart; bold 'Gr. N' / 'Mastery criterion:' labels in the text layer are NOT headings); 'Fig 2. Instructional Time Wastage' PDF p.42 (vector diagram with text labels); 'Table 1: Instructional Time Indicators in Basic Education of some Middle East Countries' PDF p.43 (ruled table with real text); 'Text Box 1: Can “All” Realistically Attain The “Education for All” Goals?' PDF p.48 (numbered 6-row ruled table); 'Fig 3: Some Determinants of Educational Outcomes' PDF p.51 (flow diagram of 11 small images with overlaid text). Footnotes 30-43 throughout. References PDF pp.51-54 (two entries labelled 'Abadzi, H. (2003a)' in source).",
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