{
  "issue_key": "vol07-no1-2019",
  "volume": 7,
  "number": 1,
  "season": "Spring/Summer 2019",
  "year": 2019,
  "sequence": 7,
  "type": "research-article",
  "section": "Research Article",
  "title": "The Syrian Identity (2): The Assad hegemony, a commentary on dynastic occupation and exploitation",
  "subtitle": null,
  "slug": "the-syrian-identity-2-the-assad-hegemony-a-commentary-on-dynastic-occupation",
  "corporate_author": null,
  "authors": [
    {
      "given_name": "Isabel",
      "family_name": "Morrell",
      "credentials": "BA",
      "affiliation": null,
      "email": "isabel.morrell@hotmail.co.uk",
      "orcid": null,
      "is_corresponding": true,
      "sequence": 1
    },
    {
      "given_name": "Nick",
      "family_name": "Papé",
      "credentials": "PhD",
      "affiliation": "Principal, London Churchill College",
      "email": null,
      "orcid": null,
      "is_corresponding": false,
      "sequence": 2
    }
  ],
  "abstract": "The establishment of dynastic presidents in Syria is a clear move to bring stability, modernisation and hoped-for prosperity to the country. How this is achieved throws up some interesting paradoxes. As a President, Hafez-al-Assad was a strong character, whose tactics were controlling and ruthless. This also describes the modus operandi later adopted by his son and successor, Bashar al-Assad. The West played no part in the planned future of the country under these regimes, as both al-Assads considered Russia to be the main supportive force. Syrian political direction under the al-Assads has experienced fragmentation of the country and embattled presidencies.",
  "keywords": [
    "Syrian identity",
    "al-Assad",
    "stability",
    "abuses",
    "Ba'thism",
    "Arabism",
    "crisis"
  ],
  "first_page": 26,
  "last_page": 37,
  "pdf_start": 28,
  "pdf_end": 39,
  "references": [
    {
      "ordinal": 1,
      "raw_text": "ABC News, (2012). Cartoon Depicts Bashar al-Assad as a Duck. [Online] Available at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-03-30/cartoon-depicts-bashar-al-assad-as-a-duck/3923096 [Accessed 13 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "ABC News, (2012). *Cartoon Depicts Bashar al-Assad as a Duck*. [Online] Available at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-03-30/cartoon-depicts-bashar-al-assad-as-a-duck/3923096 [Accessed 13 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 2,
      "raw_text": "Aggestam, K. & Dunne, T.,(2016). The failure of diplomacy and protection in Syria. In: S. Smith, A. Hadfield & T. Dunne, eds. Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 476-494.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Aggestam, K. & Dunne, T.,(2016). The failure of diplomacy and protection in Syria. In: S. Smith, A. Hadfield & T. Dunne, eds. *Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases.* Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 476-494."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 3,
      "raw_text": "Aikman, D., 2009. The Mirage of Peace: Understanding the Never-Ending Conflict in the Middle East. Grand Rapids: Baker Books.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Aikman, D., 2009. *The Mirage of Peace: Understanding the Never-Ending Conflict in the Middle East.* Grand Rapids: Baker Books."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 4,
      "raw_text": "Al Arabiya, (2012). From Lion to 'Duck': Assad's nickname goes viral. [Online] Available at: https://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/28/203829.html [Accessed 13 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Al Arabiya, (2012). *From Lion to 'Duck': Assad's nickname goes viral.* [Online] Available at: https://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/28/203829.html [Accessed 13 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 5,
      "raw_text": "Amnesty International, (2017). Syria: Human Slaughterhouse: Mass Hangings and Extermination at Saydnaya Prison, Syria. [Online] Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/5415/2017/en/ [Accessed 16 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Amnesty International, (2017). *Syria: Human Slaughterhouse: Mass Hangings and Extermination at Saydnaya Prison, Syria.* [Online] Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/5415/2017/en/ [Accessed 16 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 6,
      "raw_text": "Amos, D., (2010). Syrian Youth Unprepared for Market-Driven Economy. National Public Radio, [Online] Available at: https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130222200 [Accessed 16 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Amos, D., (2010). Syrian Youth Unprepared for Market-Driven Economy. *National Public Radio*, [Online] Available at: https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130222200 [Accessed 16 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 7,
      "raw_text": "Baczko, A., Dorronsoro, G. & Quesnay, A., (2017). Cvil War in Syria: Mobilization and Competing Social Orders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Baczko, A., Dorronsoro, G. & Quesnay, A., (2017). *Cvil War in Syria: Mobilization and Competing Social Orders.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 8,
      "raw_text": "Baofu, P., (2010.) The Future of Post-Human War and Peace: A Preface to a New Theory of Aggression and Pacificity. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Baofu, P., (2010.) *The Future of Post-Human War and Peace: A Preface to a New Theory of Aggression and Pacificity.* Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 9,
      "raw_text": "BBC News, (2012a). Bashar al-Assad's inner circle. [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13216195 [Accessed 15 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "BBC News, (2012a). *Bashar al-Assad's inner circle.* [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13216195 [Accessed 15 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 10,
      "raw_text": "BBC News, (2012b). Profile: Syria's ruling Ba'ath Party. [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18582755 [Accessed 10 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "BBC News, (2012b). *Profile: Syria's ruling Ba'ath Party.* [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18582755 [Accessed 10 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 11,
      "raw_text": "Borneman, J., (2007). Syrian Episodes: Sons, Fathers, and an Anthropologist in Aleppo. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Borneman, J., (2007). *Syrian Episodes: Sons, Fathers, and an Anthropologist in Aleppo.* New Jersey: Princeton University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 12,
      "raw_text": "Burrows, M., (1986). 'Mission Civilisatrice': French Cultural Policy in the Middle East, 1860-1914. The Historical Journal, 29(1), pp. 109-135.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Burrows, M., (1986). 'Mission Civilisatrice': French Cultural Policy in the Middle East, 1860-1914. *The Historical Journal,* 29(1), pp. 109-135."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 13,
      "raw_text": "Buzan, B. & Wæver, O., (2003). Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Buzan, B. & Wæver, O., (2003). *Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 14,
      "raw_text": "Calamur, K., 2018. Assad Is Still Using Chemical Weapons in Syria. The Atlantic,[Online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/02/syria-chemical-weapons/552428/ [Accessed 16 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Calamur, K., 2018. Assad Is Still Using Chemical Weapons in Syria. *The Atlantic*,[Online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/02/syria-chemical-weapons/552428/ [Accessed 16 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 15,
      "raw_text": "Carnegie Middle East Center, (2012c). The Damascus Spring. [Online] Available at: http://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/48516?lang=en[Accessed 12 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Carnegie Middle East Center, (2012c). *The Damascus Spring.* [Online] Available at: http://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/48516?lang=en[Accessed 12 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 16,
      "raw_text": "Charlcraft, J., (2016). Popular Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Charlcraft, J., (2016). *Popular Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 17,
      "raw_text": "Cherif, Y., (2017). Will the 2010s be the 'wasted decade' of Arab hopes?. Al Jazeera,[Online] Available at: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2010s-useless-decade-arab-hopes-171218072522055.html[Accessed 15 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Cherif, Y., (2017). Will the 2010s be the 'wasted decade' of Arab hopes?. *Al Jazeera*,[Online] Available at: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2010s-useless-decade-arab-hopes-171218072522055.html[Accessed 15 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 18,
      "raw_text": "Commins, D. & Lesch, D. W., (2014). Historical Dictionary of Syria. 3rd ed. Lanham: Scarecrow Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Commins, D. & Lesch, D. W., (2014). *Historical Dictionary of Syria.* 3rd ed. Lanham: Scarecrow Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 19,
      "raw_text": "DeRouen, K. & Heo, U., (2005). Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "DeRouen, K. & Heo, U., (2005). *Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies.* Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 20,
      "raw_text": "Eijk, E. V., (2016.) Family Law in Syria: Patriarchy, Pluralism and Personal Status Laws. London: I.B. Tauris.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Eijk, E. V., (2016.) *Family Law in Syria: Patriarchy, Pluralism and Personal Status Laws.* London: I.B. Tauris."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 21,
      "raw_text": "Farouk-Alli, A., (2015). The Genesis of Syria's Alawi Community. In: M. Kerr & C. Larkin, eds. The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 27-48.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Farouk-Alli, A., (2015). The Genesis of Syria's Alawi Community. In: M. Kerr & C. Larkin, eds. *The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant.* Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 27-48."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 22,
      "raw_text": "Fildis, A. T., (2011.) The Troubles in Syria: Spawned by French Divide and Rule. Middle East Policy, 18(4), p. 129–139.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Fildis, A. T., (2011.) The Troubles in Syria: Spawned by French Divide and Rule. *Middle East Policy,* 18(4), p. 129–139."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 23,
      "raw_text": "Fisk, R., 1994. Syria mourns death of a 'golden son': Basil Assad's fatal car crash throws open the question of who will succeed the president, writes Robert Fisk in Beirut. The Independent,[Online] Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/syria-mourns-death-of-a-golden-son-basil-assads-fatal-car-crash-throws-open-the-question-of-who-will-1408555.html[Accessed 16 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Fisk, R., 1994. Syria mourns death of a 'golden son': Basil Assad's fatal car crash throws open the question of who will succeed the president, writes Robert Fisk in Beirut. *The Independent*,[Online] Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/syria-mourns-death-of-a-golden-son-basil-assads-fatal-car-crash-throws-open-the-question-of-who-will-1408555.html[Accessed 16 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 24,
      "raw_text": "France Diplomatie, (2015). Mandat Syrie-Liban: 1920-1946. [Online] Available at: https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf [Accessed 15 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "France Diplomatie, (2015). *Mandat Syrie-Liban: 1920-1946.* [Online] Available at: https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/III\\_-\\_Protmand\\_modifie\\_mandat.pdf [Accessed 15 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 25,
      "raw_text": "France-Presse, A., (2017). Bashar al-Assad's forces responsible for deadly Syria sarin gas attack, UN finds. The Telegraph,[Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/10/26/bashar-al-assads-forces-responsible-deadly-syria-sarin-gas-attack/ [Accessed 16 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "France-Presse, A., (2017). Bashar al-Assad's forces responsible for deadly Syria sarin gas attack, UN finds. *The Telegraph*,[Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/10/26/bashar-al-assads-forces-responsible-deadly-syria-sarin-gas-attack/ [Accessed 16 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 26,
      "raw_text": "Gelfand, D. E., (2013). Syria. Minneapolis: ABDO Publishing.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Gelfand, D. E., (2013). *Syria.* Minneapolis: ABDO Publishing."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 27,
      "raw_text": "Ghadry, F. N., (2005). Syrian Reform: What Lies Beneath. The Middle East Quarterly, 12(1), pp. 61-70.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ghadry, F. N., (2005). Syrian Reform: What Lies Beneath. *The Middle East Quarterly,* 12(1), pp. 61-70."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 28,
      "raw_text": "Goldsmith, L. T., (2015). Cycle of Fear: Syrias Alawites in war and Peace. London: C. Hurst & Co..",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Goldsmith, L. T., (2015). *Cycle of Fear: Syrias Alawites in war and Peace.* London: C. Hurst & Co.."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 29,
      "raw_text": "Helfont, S., (2015). Post-Colonial States and the Struggle for Identity in the Middle East since World War Two. Foreign Policy Research Institute,[Online] Available at: https://www.fpri.org/article/2015/10/post-colonial-states-and-the-struggle-for-identity-in-the-middle-east-since-world-war-two/ [Accessed 2 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Helfont, S., (2015). Post-Colonial States and the Struggle for Identity in the Middle East since World War Two. *Foreign Policy Research Institute*,[Online] Available at: https://www.fpri.org/article/2015/10/post-colonial-states-and-the-struggle-for-identity-in-the-middle-east-since-world-war-two/ [Accessed 2 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 30,
      "raw_text": "Hinnebusch, R. A., (1991). Class and State in Ba'thist Syria. In: R. T. Antoun & D. Quataert, eds. Syria: Society, Culture and Polity. Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 29-48.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Hinnebusch, R. A., (1991). Class and State in Ba'thist Syria. In: R. T. Antoun & D. Quataert, eds. *Syria: Society, Culture and Polity.* Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 29-48."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 31,
      "raw_text": "Hinnebusch, R.A., (2002). Syria: Revolution from Above. London: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Hinnebusch, R.A., (2002). *Syria: Revolution from Above.* London: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 32,
      "raw_text": "Hopwood, D., (2014). Syria 1945-1986: Politics and Society. London: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Hopwood, D., (2014). *Syria 1945-1986: Politics and Society.* London: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 33,
      "raw_text": "Houry, N., (2010). Syria's decade of repression. The Guardian,[Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/jul/16/syria-decade-repression-bashar-al-assad [Accessed 11 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Houry, N., (2010). Syria's decade of repression. *The Guardian*,[Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/jul/16/syria-decade-repression-bashar-al-assad [Accessed 11 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 34,
      "raw_text": "Human Rights Watch, (2000). Syria: Human Rights Developments. [Online] Available at: http://pantheon.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k/Mena-09.htm[Accessed 11 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Human Rights Watch, (2000). *Syria: Human Rights Developments.* [Online] Available at: http://pantheon.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k/Mena-09.htm[Accessed 11 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 35,
      "raw_text": "Human Rights Watch, 2018. World Report 2018: Syria: Events of 2017. [Online] Available at: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/syria[Accessed 16 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Human Rights Watch, 2018. *World Report 2018: Syria: Events of 2017.* [Online] Available at: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/syria[Accessed 16 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 36,
      "raw_text": "Huysmans, J., (2006). The Politics of Insecurity: Fear, Migration and Asylum in the EU. Oxon: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Huysmans, J., (2006). *The Politics of Insecurity: Fear, Migration and Asylum in the EU.* Oxon: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 37,
      "raw_text": "Jones, A., (2017). Food security: how drought and rising prices led to conflict in Syria. The Conversation, [Online] Available at: http://theconversation.com/food-security-how-drought-and-rising-prices-led-to-conflict-in-syria-71539[Accessed 16 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Jones, A., (2017). Food security: how drought and rising prices led to conflict in Syria. *The Conversation*, [Online] Available at: http://theconversation.com/food-security-how-drought-and-rising-prices-led-to-conflict-in-syria-71539[Accessed 16 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 38,
      "raw_text": "Jorum, E. L., (2014). Beyond Syria's Borders: A History of Territorial Disputes in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Jorum, E. L., (2014). *Beyond Syria's Borders: A History of Territorial Disputes in the Middle East.* London: I.B. Tauris."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 39,
      "raw_text": "Kaplan, R. D., (1993). Syria: Identity Crisis. The Atlantic,[Online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1993/02/syria-identity-crisis/303860/[Accessed 4 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Kaplan, R. D., (1993). Syria: Identity Crisis. *The Atlantic*,[Online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1993/02/syria-identity-crisis/303860/[Accessed 4 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 40,
      "raw_text": "Katz, M. N., (n.d). The Geopolitical Context of the \"War on Terror\". Middle East Policy Council,[Online] Available at: http://www.mepc.org/commentary/geopolitical-context-war-terror [Accessed 15 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Katz, M. N., (n.d). The Geopolitical Context of the \"War on Terror\". *Middle East Policy Council*,[Online] Available at: http://www.mepc.org/commentary/geopolitical-context-war-terror [Accessed 15 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 41,
      "raw_text": "Kaufmann, E. P. & Toft, M. D., (2012). Introduction. In: J. A. Goldstone, E. P. Kaufmann & M. D. Toft, eds. Political Demography: How Population Changes Are Reshaping International Security and National Politics. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, pp. 3-9.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Kaufmann, E. P. & Toft, M. D., (2012). Introduction. In: J. A. Goldstone, E. P. Kaufmann & M. D. Toft, eds. *Political Demography: How Population Changes Are Reshaping International Security and National Politics.* Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, pp. 3-9."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 42,
      "raw_text": "Kerr, M., (2015). Introduction: For 'God, Syria, Bashar and Nothing Else'?. In: M. Kerr & C. Larkin, eds. The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-26.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Kerr, M., (2015). Introduction: For 'God, Syria, Bashar and Nothing Else'?. In: M. Kerr & C. Larkin, eds. *The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant.* Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-26."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 43,
      "raw_text": "Khatib, L., (2011). Islamic Revivalism in Syria: The rise and fall of Ba'thist secularism. Oxon: Routlege.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Khatib, L., (2011). *Islamic Revivalism in Syria: The rise and fall of Ba'thist secularism.* Oxon: Routlege."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 44,
      "raw_text": "Khoury, P. S., (1987). Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945. New Jersey: Princeton Legacy Library.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Khoury, P. S., (1987). *Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945.* New Jersey: Princeton Legacy Library."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 45,
      "raw_text": "Lawson, F. H., (2013). Global Security Watch: Syria. Santa Barbara: Praeger.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Lawson, F. H., (2013). *Global Security Watch: Syria.* Santa Barbara: Praeger."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 46,
      "raw_text": "Lefèvre, R., (2015). Islamism within a civil war: The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood's struggle for survival. Brookings, [Online] Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Syria_Lefevre-FINALE.pdf[Accessed 22 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Lefèvre, R., (2015). Islamism within a civil war: The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood's struggle for survival. *Brookings*, [Online] Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Syria\\_Lefevre-FINALE.pdf[Accessed 22 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 47,
      "raw_text": "Lesch, D. W., (2005). The New Lion of Damascus: Bashar al-Asad and Modern Syria. New Haven: Yale University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Lesch, D. W., (2005). *The New Lion of Damascus: Bashar al-Asad and Modern Syria.* New Haven: Yale University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 48,
      "raw_text": "Lesch, D. W., (2013). Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad. New Haven: Yale University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Lesch, D. W., (2013). *Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad.* New Haven: Yale University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 49,
      "raw_text": "Leverett, F., (2005). Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial by Fire. Wahington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Leverett, F., (2005). *Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial by Fire.* Wahington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 50,
      "raw_text": "MacAskill, E., (2000). Last Roar for the Lion of Damascus. The Guardian,[Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/jun/14/israel1 [Accessed 15 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "MacAskill, E., (2000). Last Roar for the Lion of Damascus. *The Guardian*,[Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/jun/14/israel1 [Accessed 15 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 51,
      "raw_text": "McHugo, J., (2014). Syria: From the Great War to Civil War. London: Saqi Books.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "McHugo, J., (2014). *Syria: From the Great War to Civil War.* London: Saqi Books."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 52,
      "raw_text": "Medi Belortaja, (2009). Bashar al Assad. Toon Pool, [Online] Available at: https://www.toonpool.com/cartoons/bashar%20al%20assad_66105[Accessed 15 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Medi Belortaja, (2009). Bashar al Assad. *Toon Pool,* [Online] Available at: https://www.toonpool.com/cartoons/bashar%20al%20assad\\_66105[Accessed 15 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 53,
      "raw_text": "Morrell, I. (2018). 'The Syrian Identity: An exploration of the legacy of colonialism', unpublished Dissertation submitted for BA award at University of Birmingham",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Morrell, I. (2018). '*The Syrian Identity: An exploration of the legacy of colonialism*', unpublished Dissertation submitted for BA award at University of Birmingham"
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 54,
      "raw_text": "Morrell, I. and Papé, N.R. (2018). The Syrian Identity (1): An exploration of the legacy of colonialism illuminating the diaspora of a nation, Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies, 6:1, pp. 66-78.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Morrell, I. and Papé, N.R. (2018). The Syrian Identity (1): An exploration of the legacy of colonialism illuminating the diaspora of a nation, *Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies*, 6:1, pp. 66-78."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 55,
      "raw_text": "Moubayed, S., (2006). Steel & Silk: Men & women who shaped Syria 1900-2000. Seattle: Cune Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Moubayed, S., (2006). *Steel & Silk: Men & women who shaped Syria 1900-2000.* Seattle: Cune Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 56,
      "raw_text": "Nebehay, S., (2017). Syrian government forces used chemical weapons more than two dozen times - U.N.. Reuters, [Online]. Available at: https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-warcrimes/syrian-government-forces-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-two-dozen-times-u-n-idUKKCN1BH19Z [Accessed 16 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Nebehay, S., (2017). Syrian government forces used chemical weapons more than two dozen times - U.N.. *Reuters*, [Online]. Available at: https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-warcrimes/syrian-government-forces-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-two-dozen-times-u-n-idUKKCN1BH19Z [Accessed 16 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 57,
      "raw_text": "O'Nions, H., (2016). Asylum - A Right Denied: A Critical Analysis of European Asylum Policy. Oxon: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "O'Nions, H., (2016). *Asylum - A Right Denied: A Critical Analysis of European Asylum Policy.* Oxon: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 58,
      "raw_text": "Phillips, C., (2013). Everyday Arab Identity: The Daily Reproductoin of the Arab World. Oxon: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Phillips, C., (2013). *Everyday Arab Identity: The Daily Reproductoin of the Arab World.* Oxon: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 59,
      "raw_text": "Plett, B., (2000). Syria's changing face. BBC News,[Online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/857527.stm [Accessed 15 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Plett, B., (2000). Syria's changing face. *BBC News*,[Online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from\\_our\\_own\\_correspondent/857527.stm [Accessed 15 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 60,
      "raw_text": "Pope, H., (2000). Syria's political changes threaten Alawites' power. Likoed Nederland,[Online] Available at: https://likud.nl/2000/06/syrias-political-changes-threaten-alawites-power/[Accessed 15 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Pope, H., (2000). Syria's political changes threaten Alawites' power. *Likoed Nederland,*[Online] Available at: https://likud.nl/2000/06/syrias-political-changes-threaten-alawites-power/[Accessed 15 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 61,
      "raw_text": "presidentassad.net, n.d. e. (1971). Interviews. [Online] Available at: http://www.presidentassad.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=170&Itemid=475 [Accessed 7 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "presidentassad.net, n.d. e. (*1971). Interviews.* [Online] Available at: http://www.presidentassad.net/index.php?option=com\\_content&view=category&id=170&Itemid=475 [Accessed 7 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 62,
      "raw_text": "Rifai, O., (2014). The shifting balance of identity politics after the Syrian uprising. Open Democracy,[Online] Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/north-africa-west-asia/ola-rifai/shifting-balance-of-identity-politics-after-syrian-uprising[Accessed 4 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Rifai, O., (2014). The shifting balance of identity politics after the Syrian uprising. *Open Democracy*,[Online] Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/north-africa-west-asia/ola-rifai/shifting-balance-of-identity-politics-after-syrian-uprising[Accessed 4 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 63,
      "raw_text": "Rundle, M., (2012). Syrian Uprising: Protesters Have Fun With Bashar 'The Duck' Assad's New Nickname. Huffington Post, [Online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/03/30/assad-duck-satire-syria-uprising-protesters_n_1390590.html [Accessed 13 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Rundle, M., (2012). Syrian Uprising: Protesters Have Fun With Bashar 'The Duck' Assad's New Nickname. *Huffington Post*, [Online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/03/30/assad-duck-satire-syria-uprising-protesters\\_n\\_1390590.html [Accessed 13 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 64,
      "raw_text": "Sample, I., (2015). Global warming contributed to Syria's 2011 uprising, scientists claim. The Guardian, [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/02/global-warming-worsened-syria-drought-study [Accessed 16 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Sample, I., (2015). Global warming contributed to Syria's 2011 uprising, scientists claim. *The Guardian,* [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/02/global-warming-worsened-syria-drought-study [Accessed 16 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 65,
      "raw_text": "SANA, (2017b). Workforce challenges addressed on Corrective Movement anniversary. [Online] Available at: https://sana.sy/en/?p=118224 [Accessed 12 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "SANA, (2017b). *Workforce challenges addressed on Corrective Movement anniversary.* [Online] Available at: https://sana.sy/en/?p=118224 [Accessed 12 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 66,
      "raw_text": "Schmidt, W. E., 1994. Assad's Son Killed in an Auto Crash. The New York Times,[Online] Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/22/world/assad-s-son-killed-in-an-auto-crash.html [Accessed 16 February 2018]",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Schmidt, W. E., 1994. Assad's Son Killed in an Auto Crash. *The New York Times*,[Online] Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/22/world/assad-s-son-killed-in-an-auto-crash.html [Accessed 16 February 2018]"
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 67,
      "raw_text": "Seale, P. & McConville, M., (1990). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. Berkeley: University of California Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Seale, P. & McConville, M., (1990). *Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East.* Berkeley: University of California Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 68,
      "raw_text": "Statcher, J., (2011). Reinterpreting Authoritarian Power: Syria's Hereditary Succession. Middle East Journal, 65(2), pp. 197-212.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Statcher, J., (2011). Reinterpreting Authoritarian Power: Syria's Hereditary Succession. *Middle East Journal,* 65(2), pp. 197-212."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 69,
      "raw_text": "Sukarieh, M. & Tannock, S., (2015). Youth Rising? The Politics of Youth in the Global Economy. New York: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Sukarieh, M. & Tannock, S., (2015). *Youth Rising? The Politics of Youth in the Global Economy.* New York: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 70,
      "raw_text": "Syria Times, (2012). President Hafez al-Assad CV. [Online] Available at: http://www.syriatimes.sy/index.php/useful-information/telephone-numbers/114-other/151-president-hafez-al-assad-cv [Accessed 6 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Syria Times, (2012). *President Hafez al-Assad CV.* [Online] Available at: http://www.syriatimes.sy/index.php/useful-information/telephone-numbers/114-other/151-president-hafez-al-assad-cv [Accessed 6 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 71,
      "raw_text": "The Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party, (2015). The Constitution of the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party. [Online] Available at: http://www.Ba'athparty.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=307&Itemid=327&lang=en&limitstart=0 [Accessed 1 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "The Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party, (2015). *The Constitution of the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party.* [Online] Available at: http://www.Ba'athparty.org/index.php?option=com\\_content&view=category&id=307&Itemid=327&lang=en&limitstart=0 [Accessed 1 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 72,
      "raw_text": "Tomass, M., (2017.) The Ideological Origins of ISIS: Fighting Terror with Common Sense. In: C. Webel & M. Tomass, eds. Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives. Oxon: Routledge, pp. 108-136.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Tomass, M., (2017.) The Ideological Origins of ISIS: Fighting Terror with Common Sense. In: C. Webel & M. Tomass, eds. *Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives.* Oxon: Routledge, pp. 108-136."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 73,
      "raw_text": "Ulrichsen, K. C., (2014). The First World War in the Middle East. London: C. Hurst & Co..",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ulrichsen, K. C., (2014). *The First World War in the Middle East.* London: C. Hurst & Co.."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 74,
      "raw_text": "UNDP, (2013). A clash of generations: How high percentages of young people can fuel conflicts. [Online] Available at: http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourperspective/ourperspectivearticles/2013/12/20/a-clash-of-generations-how-high-percentages-of-young-people-can-fuel-conflicts-henrik-urdal.html [Accessed 16 January 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "UNDP, (2013). *A clash of generations: How high percentages of young people can fuel conflicts.* [Online] Available at: http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourperspective/ourperspectivearticles/2013/12/20/a-clash-of-generations-how-high-percentages-of-young-people-can-fuel-conflicts-henrik-urdal.html [Accessed 16 January 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 75,
      "raw_text": "Webel, C. & Tomass, M., (2017). Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives. Oxon: Routledge.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Webel, C. & Tomass, M., (2017). *Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives.* Oxon: Routledge."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 76,
      "raw_text": "Wedeen, L., (1998). Acting \"As If\": Symbolic Politics and Social Control in Syria. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 40(3), pp. 503-523.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Wedeen, L., (1998). Acting \"As If\": Symbolic Politics and Social Control in Syria. *Comparative Studies in Society and History,* 40(3), pp. 503-523."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 77,
      "raw_text": "Wiedl, K. N., (2006). The Hama Massacre - Reasons, Supporters of the Rebellion, Consequences. Norderstedt: GRIN Verlag.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Wiedl, K. N., (2006). *The Hama Massacre - Reasons, Supporters of the Rebellion, Consequences.* Norderstedt: GRIN Verlag."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 78,
      "raw_text": "Wieland, C., (2012). Syria, a Decade of Lost Chances. [Online] Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/carsten-wieland/syria-decade-of-lost-chances [Accessed 12 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Wieland, C., (2012). *Syria, a Decade of Lost Chances.* [Online] Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/carsten-wieland/syria-decade-of-lost-chances [Accessed 12 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 79,
      "raw_text": "Wright, R., (2017). The Assad Family: Nemesis of Nine U.S. Presidents. The New Yorker,[Online] Available at: https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-assad-family-nemesis-of-nine-u-s-presidents [Accessed 15 February 2018].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Wright, R., (2017). The Assad Family: Nemesis of Nine U.S. Presidents. *The New Yorker*,[Online] Available at: https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-assad-family-nemesis-of-nine-u-s-presidents [Accessed 15 February 2018]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 80,
      "raw_text": "Zisser, E., (2000). Will Bashshar al-Asad Rule?. Middle East Quarterly, 7(3), pp. 3-12.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Zisser, E., (2000). Will Bashshar al-Asad Rule?. *Middle East Quarterly,* 7(3), pp. 3-12."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 81,
      "raw_text": "Zisser, E., (2006). Who's Afraid of Syrian Nationalism? National and State Identity in Syria. Middle Eastern Studies, 42(2), pp. 179-198.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Zisser, E., (2006). Who's Afraid of Syrian Nationalism? National and State Identity in Syria. *Middle Eastern Studies,* 42(2), pp. 179-198."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 82,
      "raw_text": "Zisser, E., (2007). Commanding Syria: Bashar al-Asad and the First Years in Power. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Zisser, E., (2007). *Commanding Syria: Bashar al-Asad and the First Years in Power.* London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 83,
      "raw_text": "Ziter, E., (2015). Political Performance in Syria: From the Six-Day War to the Syrian Uprising. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ziter, E., (2015). *Political Performance in Syria: From the Six-Day War to the Syrian Uprising.* Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan."
    }
  ],
  "notes": [
    "5 Main author. Correspondence to: isabel.morrell@hotmail.co.uk",
    "6 Principal, London Churchill College",
    "7 Based on the combined works of (Burrows, 1986; France Diplomatie, 2015; Fildis, 2011; Khoury, 1987; Kaplan, 1993; McHugo, 2014; Ziter, 2015; DeRouen & Heo, 2005; Ulrichsen, 2014; Commins & Lesch, 2014; Lefèvre, 2015; Charlcraft, 2016; Lawson, 2013).",
    "8 For examples see: (presidentassad.net,n.d.e).",
    "9 A 'youth bulge' is the large proportion of youth within the population (UNDP, 2013). Youth bulge theory argues that the combination of a disproportionally large youth population without stable employment contributes to political uprisings, activism and violence, based on the idea that the youth is a socially and politically motivated section of society (Kaufmann & Toft, 2012; Baofu, 2010; Sukarieh & Tannock, 2015)."
  ],
  "figures": [
    {
      "kind": "figure",
      "file": "figures/fig-02-p31.png",
      "caption": "Figure 1: Common Arab delineation of the Arab Homeland (Culcasi, 2012: 1102)",
      "pdf_page": 31,
      "text_in_image": "Core states of the Arab Homeland"
    },
    {
      "kind": "figure",
      "file": "figures/fig-03-p35.png",
      "caption": "Figure 2: A cartoon depicting Bashar al-Assad as a duck is displayed at a rally in the northern city of Al-Hasakah (ABC News, 2012)",
      "pdf_page": 35,
      "text_in_image": null
    }
  ],
  "files": {
    "html": "index.html",
    "body_markdown": "body.md",
    "pdf": "article.pdf"
  },
  "word_count": 5536,
  "conversion_warnings": [
    "OCR text (no text layer in the PDF) — body, abstract, notes and references rebuilt from Windows OCR and verified against 300 dpi page images; diacritics restored where visible (façade, Wæver, Lefèvre, Papé).",
    "Typographic curly quotes/apostrophes in the PDF are rendered as straight quotes (OCR normalisation); ellipses as '...'.",
    "Table 1 (Historical Timeline, PDF p.30) rebuilt as a pipe table; the 1949 row holds three events separated by line breaks; header cell carries footnote marker 7. The old table image fig-01-p30.png is no longer referenced.",
    "References list was not detected by the converter; rebuilt by hand from the page images (83 entries). URLs transcribed from the image — spot-check before linking.",
    "In-text citations with no matching reference entry (as printed, not corrected): Culcasi 2012 (Figure 1 source), Human Rights Watch 2001, Wedeen 2015, al-Assad & Seale 1993, aberoia11 2011."
  ],
  "manifest_notes": "Part 2 of the three-part series 'The Syrian Identity' (Part 1 in vol06; cited as Morrell & Papé 2018). Byline 'Isabel Morrell5, BA and Nick Papé6, PhD'; footnote 5 'Main author. Correspondence to: isabel.morrell@hotmail.co.uk'; footnote 6 'Principal, London Churchill College'. Contents/back cover: 'Isabelle Morrell and Dr. Nick Papé' and 'Dynastic' capitalised. Morrell affiliation left null: Contributors says she graduated from University of Birmingham (BA July 2018, then MSc there) and will start a PhD at University of Manchester in Sept 2019 (vol06 manifest used 'University of Birmingham'). Papé accent verified on image. Content footnotes 7 (pdf 30, sources for timeline), 8 (pdf 32), 9 (pdf 35, 'youth bulge', text flows across both columns). Table 1 headed 'Historical Timeline7', caption below 'Table 1: Important dates in Syrian history' (pdf 30, full width, year/event rows, grey header). Figure 1 map 'Common Arab delineation of the Arab Homeland (Culcasi, 2012: 1102)' (pdf 31, left column, italic caption below); Figure 2 photo of a cartoon of Bashar al-Assad as a duck (ABC News, 2012) (pdf 35, left column). Text uses façade, Ba'thism, Wæver, Lefèvre - OCR loses ç/æ/è. Body says 'This chapter argues' (pdf 29). References heading at bottom of left column pdf 36, list runs to pdf 39 (long underlined URLs, [Accessed ...]). pdf 31 footer misprinted 'Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies  xxix'.",
  "source": {
    "pdf": "vol07-no1-2019.pdf",
    "ocr": true
  },
  "reviewed": true
}