{
  "issue_key": "vol07-no1-2019",
  "volume": 7,
  "number": 1,
  "season": "Spring/Summer 2019",
  "year": 2019,
  "sequence": 9,
  "type": "research-article",
  "section": "Research Article",
  "title": "The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present",
  "subtitle": null,
  "slug": "the-dynamics-of-the-sino-pakistani-strategic-partnership-from-its-formation-in",
  "corporate_author": null,
  "authors": [
    {
      "given_name": "Nasser",
      "family_name": "Amin",
      "credentials": null,
      "affiliation": null,
      "email": null,
      "orcid": null,
      "is_corresponding": false,
      "sequence": 1
    }
  ],
  "abstract": "Chinese President Xi Jinping’s global Belt-Road Initiative (BRI), the most significant part of which is the £40bn investment to modernise Pakistan’s infrastructure, underlines the growing importance of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in international affairs. Whilst many analysts have seen the PRC’s outward investment through an economic lens in the context of a global trade war or a new Chinese imperialism, this paper argues, through an analysis of the basis, dimensions and historical trajectory of the Sino-Pakistani entente, that the Pakistani component of the project ought to be understood in the context of Beijing’s long-standing political and strategic interests in South Asia, which are a central part of its aspirations for great power status. This research demonstrates that the entente, which has demonstrated a remarkable durability and dynamism since the early 1960s to the present and survived many tumultuous events within each country and reconfigurations within the geo-political order, represents a striking and paradigmatic example of how state power considerations, rather than culture, ideology, economic interest or composition of ruling elites, can determine foreign policy behaviour – as conceptualised by the Neo-Realist school of International Relations (IR) theory. Although highly divergent societies and polities with conflicting views on central global issues, Beijing and Islamabad have nonetheless discerned through realist calculations a shared advantage in entering into a balancing partnership to counter and contain their mutual Indian foe and curtail its ability to concentrate its forces solely on either state in a conflict situation. Informed by a neo-realist perspective that also takes into account features of state identity, this research demonstrates that with the unlikelihood of settlements regarding Chinese and Pakistani territorial disputes with India in the medium term and a wider mounting rivalry between Beijing and New Delhi for, ultimately, global hegemony, it is expected that the balancing partnership against India shall continue to remain an unyielding feature of the PRC’s foreign policy.",
  "keywords": [
    "China",
    "Pakistan",
    "Neo-realism",
    "International Relations",
    "India",
    "Belt-Road Initiative",
    "Kashmir"
  ],
  "first_page": 51,
  "last_page": 66,
  "pdf_start": 53,
  "pdf_end": 68,
  "references": [
    {
      "ordinal": 1,
      "raw_text": "Ahrari, M. Ehsan, (2000) ‘China, Pakistan and the “Taliban Syndrome”’ in Asian Survey, 40:4, 658-671.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ahrari, M. Ehsan, (2000) ‘China, Pakistan and the “Taliban Syndrome”’ in *Asian Survey,* 40:4, 658-671."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 2,
      "raw_text": "Ahrari, Ehsan, (2006) ‘Pakistan’s Quandary Related to US-India Nuclear Deal’ [Online] Available at: http://www.ehsanahrari.com/articles.php?id=257 [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ahrari, Ehsan, (2006) ‘Pakistan’s Quandary Related to US-India Nuclear Deal’ \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.ehsanahrari.com/articles.php?id=257 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 3,
      "raw_text": "Ahrari, Ehsan, (2007), ‘The Future of the US-India Nuclear Deal’ [Online] Available at: http://www.ehsanahrari.com/articles.php?id=552 [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ahrari, Ehsan, (2007), ‘The Future of the US-India Nuclear Deal’ \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.ehsanahrari.com/articles.php?id=552 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 4,
      "raw_text": "Ali, T. (1983) Can Pakistan Survive?: The Death of a State, Harmondsworth, Penguin.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ali, T. (1983) *Can Pakistan Survive?: The Death of a State*, Harmondsworth, Penguin."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 5,
      "raw_text": "Ali, T. (1970) Pakistan: Military Rule or People’s Power, New York, William Morrow.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ali, T. (1970) *Pakistan: Military Rule or People’s Power*, New York, William Morrow."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 6,
      "raw_text": "Aneja, Urvashi. (2006) ‘Pakistan-China Relations: Recent Developments’, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies Special Report [Online] Available at: http://www.ipcs.org/IPCS-Special-Report-26.pdf [Accessed 1st February 2019).",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Aneja, Urvashi. (2006) ‘Pakistan-China Relations: Recent Developments’, *Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies Special Report* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.ipcs.org/IPCS-Special-Report-26.pdf \\[Accessed 1st February 2019)."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 7,
      "raw_text": "Bajpaee, Chietigj, (2007) ‘Strategic interests pull Japan and India together’, Power and Interest News Report [Online] Available at: http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=618&language_id=1 [Accessed 1st February 2019]",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Bajpaee, Chietigj, (2007) ‘Strategic interests pull Japan and India together’, *Power and Interest News Report* \\[Online\\] *Available at:* http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=618&language_id=1 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]"
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 8,
      "raw_text": "Barnds, William, J. (1975) ‘China’s Relations with Pakistan: Durability amidst Discontinuity’ in The China Quarterly, 63, 463-489.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Barnds, William, J. (1975) ‘China’s Relations with Pakistan: Durability amidst Discontinuity’ in *The China Quarterly*, 63, 463-489."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 9,
      "raw_text": "Bedi R. and Spencer R., (2008) ‘US-India defence deal to ‘counter China’’ The Daily Telegraph [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1579938/US-India-defence-deal-'to-counter-China'.html [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Bedi R. and Spencer R., (2008) ‘US-India defence deal to ‘counter China’’ *The Daily Telegraph* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1579938/US-India-defence-deal-'to-counter-China'.html \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 10,
      "raw_text": "Blair, David, (2008) ‘India ‘must not show weakness to China’’ The Daily Telegraph [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/2827488/India-must-not-show-weakness-to-China.html [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Blair, David, (2008) ‘India ‘must not show weakness to China’’ *The Daily Telegraph* \\[Online\\] *Available at:* http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/2827488/India-must-not-show-weakness-to-China.html \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 11,
      "raw_text": "Brecher, M. (1959) Nehru: A Political Biography, New York, Oxford University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Brecher, M. (1959) *Nehru: A Political Biography*, New York, Oxford University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 12,
      "raw_text": "Burke, S. M. and Ziring, L. (1990) Pakistan’s Foreign Policy, Karachi, Oxford University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Burke, S. M. and Ziring, L. (1990) *Pakistan’s Foreign Policy*, Karachi, Oxford University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 13,
      "raw_text": "Chaturvedy, Rajeev, (2006) ‘Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy at Gwadar’, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, [Online] Available at: http://www.ipcs.org/whatsNewArticle11.jsp?action=showView&kValue=1952&status=article&mod=bion=showView&kValue=1952&status=article&mod=b [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Chaturvedy, Rajeev, (2006) ‘Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy at Gwadar’, *Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, \\[Online\\] Available at:* http://www.ipcs.org/whatsNewArticle11.jsp?action=showView&kValue=1952&status=article&mod=bion=showView&kValue=1952&status=article&mod=b \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 14,
      "raw_text": "Cheema, P. I. (2002) The Armed Forces of Pakistan, Crows Nest, Allen and Unwin.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Cheema, P. I. (2002) *The Armed Forces of Pakistan*, Crows Nest, Allen and Unwin."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 15,
      "raw_text": "‘China builds up strategic sea lanes’ (January 17th, 2005) The Washington Times [Online] Available at: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jan/17/20050117-115550-1929r/ [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘China builds up strategic sea lanes’ (January 17th, 2005) *The Washington Times* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jan/17/20050117-115550-1929r/ \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 16,
      "raw_text": "‘China seeks India Tibet backing’ (March 2008), BBC News [Online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7321899.stm [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘China seeks India Tibet backing’ (March 2008), *BBC News* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7321899.stm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 17,
      "raw_text": "‘Chinese militant 'shot dead'’ (December 2003), BBC News [Online[ Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3343241.stm [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘Chinese militant 'shot dead'’ (December 2003), *BBC News* \\[Online\\[ Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3343241.stm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 18,
      "raw_text": "Cohen, S. P. (2001) India: Emerging Power, Oxford, Oxford University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Cohen, S. P. (2001) *India: Emerging Power*, Oxford, Oxford University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 19,
      "raw_text": "Cohen, S. P. (2004) The Idea of Pakistan, Washington DC, Brookings Institution Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Cohen, S. P. (2004) *The Idea of Pakistan*, Washington DC, Brookings Institution Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 20,
      "raw_text": "Garver, John W. (1987) ‘Chinese-Indian Rivalry in Indochina’ in Asian Survey, 27:11, 1205-1219.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Garver, John W. (1987) ‘Chinese-Indian Rivalry in Indochina’ in *Asian Survey,* 27:11, 1205-1219."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 21,
      "raw_text": "Garver, John W. (1993) Foreign Relations of the People’s Republic of China, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Garver, John W. (1993) *Foreign Relations of the People’s Republic of China*, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 22,
      "raw_text": "Garver, John W. (1996) ‘Sino-Indian Rapprochement and the Sino-Pakistan Entente’ in Political Science Quarterly, 111:2, 323-347.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Garver, John W. (1996) ‘Sino-Indian Rapprochement and the Sino-Pakistan Entente’ in *Political Science Quarterly*, 111:2, 323-347."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 23,
      "raw_text": "Garver, J. W. (2001) Protracted Contest, Seattle, University of Washington.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Garver, J. W. (2001) *Protracted Contest*, Seattle, University of Washington."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 24,
      "raw_text": "Garver, J. W. (2002) ‘The China-India-US Triangle: Strategic Relations in the Post-Cold War Era’ in NBR Analysis 13:5",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Garver, J. W. (2002) ‘The China-India-US Triangle: Strategic Relations in the Post-Cold War Era’ in *NBR Analysis* 13:5"
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 25,
      "raw_text": "Gittings, J. (1968) Survey of the Sino-Soviet Dispute, Oxford, Oxford University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Gittings, J. (1968) *Survey of the Sino-Soviet Dispute*, Oxford, Oxford University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 26,
      "raw_text": "Gittings, J. (2002), ‘Chinese leader seeks central role in defusing conflict’ The Guardian [Online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jun/04/india.kashmir [Accessed 1st February 2019).",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Gittings, J. (2002), ‘Chinese leader seeks central role in defusing conflict’ *The Guardian* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jun/04/india.kashmir \\[Accessed 1st February 2019)."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 27,
      "raw_text": "Goldstein, Steven M. (1995) ‘Sino-Soviet Relations’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Goldstein, Steven M. (1995) ‘Sino-Soviet Relations’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 28,
      "raw_text": "Guang, Lei, (2004) ‘From national identity to national security: China’s changing responses toward India in 1962 and 1998’ in The Pacific Review, 17:3, 399-422.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Guang, Lei, (2004) ‘From national identity to national security: China’s changing responses toward India in 1962 and 1998’ in *The Pacific Review,* 17:3, 399-422."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 29,
      "raw_text": "Guihong, Zhang, (2005) ‘China’s Peaceful Rise and Sino-Indian Relations’ in China Report, 41:2.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Guihong, Zhang, (2005) ‘China’s Peaceful Rise and Sino-Indian Relations’ in *China Report,* 41:2."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 30,
      "raw_text": "Hagerty, Devin T. (2002) ‘China and Pakistan: Strains in the Relationship’ in Current History, 10(656).",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Hagerty, Devin T. (2002) ‘China and Pakistan: Strains in the Relationship’ in *Current History*, 10(656)."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 31,
      "raw_text": "Haider, Ziad, (2005) ‘Baluchis, Beijing and Pakistan’s Gwadar Port’ in Georgetown Journal of International Affairs.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Haider, Ziad, (2005) ‘Baluchis, Beijing and Pakistan’s Gwadar Port’ in *Georgetown Journal of International Affairs.*"
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 32,
      "raw_text": "Harding. Harry, (1995) ‘China’s Cooperative Behaviour’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Harding. Harry, (1995) ‘China’s Cooperative Behaviour’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 33,
      "raw_text": "Harris, Lillian, C. (1995) ‘China and the Middle East’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Harris, Lillian, C. (1995) ‘China and the Middle East’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 34,
      "raw_text": "Hinton, Harold C. (1995) ‘China as an Asian Power’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Hinton, Harold C. (1995) ‘China as an Asian Power’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 35,
      "raw_text": "Huntingdon, S. (1997) The Clash of Civilisations, London, Simon and Schuster.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Huntingdon, S. (1997) *The Clash of Civilisations*, London, Simon and Schuster."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 36,
      "raw_text": "Khan, Aamer Ahmed, (2006) ‘Pakistan – China: Is it really all smiles?’ BBC News. [Online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6181242.stm [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Khan, Aamer Ahmed, (2006) ‘Pakistan – China: Is it really all smiles?’ BBC News. \\[Online\\] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6181242.stm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 37,
      "raw_text": "Kirby, William C. (1995) ‘Traditions of Centrality, Authority and Management in Modern China’s Foreign Relations’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Kirby, William C. (1995) ‘Traditions of Centrality, Authority and Management in Modern China’s Foreign Relations’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 38,
      "raw_text": "Lal, R. (2006) Understanding China and India, Westport, Praeger Security International.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Lal, R. (2006) *Understanding China and India*, Westport, Praeger Security International."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 39,
      "raw_text": "Levine, Steven I. (1995) ‘Perception and Ideology in Chinese Foreign Policy’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Levine, Steven I. (1995) ‘Perception and Ideology in Chinese Foreign Policy’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 40,
      "raw_text": "Lieberthal, K. (2004) Governing China, New York, W. W. Norton.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Lieberthal, K. (2004) *Governing China*, New York, W. W. Norton."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 41,
      "raw_text": "Luard Tim, (2003) ‘China keeps Pakistan guessing’ BBC News [On line] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/asia-pacific/3236683.stm [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Luard Tim, (2003) ‘China keeps Pakistan guessing’ *BBC News* \\[On line\\] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/asia-pacific/3236683.stm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 42,
      "raw_text": "Mahmud, F. (1991) A History of US-Pakistan Relations, Lahore, Vanguard.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Mahmud, F. (1991) *A History of US-Pakistan Relations*, Lahore, Vanguard."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 43,
      "raw_text": "Malhotra, Jyoti, (1999) ‘China’s no threat; talks clear bad air’ Indian Express [Online] Available at: http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19990616/ige16083.html [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Malhotra, Jyoti, (1999) ‘China’s no threat; talks clear bad air’ *Indian Express* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19990616/ige16083.html \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 44,
      "raw_text": "‘Massive Chinese investment is a boon for Pakistan’ (September 9th, 2017) The Economist [Online] Available at: https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/09/09/massive-chinese-investment-is-a-boon-for-pakistan [Accessed 1st April 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘Massive Chinese investment is a boon for Pakistan’ (September 9th, 2017) *The Economist* \\[Online\\] Available at: https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/09/09/massive-chinese-investment-is-a-boon-for-pakistan \\[Accessed 1st April 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 45,
      "raw_text": "Maxwell, N. (1970) India’s China War, London, Jonathan Cape.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Maxwell, N. (1970) *India’s China War*, London, Jonathan Cape."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 46,
      "raw_text": "Mearsheimer, J.J. (2001) The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Mearsheimer, J.J. (2001) The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 47,
      "raw_text": "Mearsheimer, J. (2006) ‘China's Unpeaceful Rise’ in Current History, 105 (690).",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Mearsheimer, J. (2006) ‘China's Unpeaceful Rise’ in *Current History*, 105 (690)."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 48,
      "raw_text": "Mearsheimer, J.J. (2010) 'Structural Realism' in Dunne, T, Kurki, M et al. (eds.) International Relations Theories, Oxford, Oxford University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Mearsheimer, J.J. (2010) 'Structural Realism' in Dunne, T, Kurki, M et al. (eds.) *International Relations Theories*, Oxford, Oxford University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 49,
      "raw_text": "Mohan, C. Raja, (2003) ‘India and Sino-Pak ties’ (2003), The Hindu [Online] Available at: http://www.hinduonnet.com/2003/11/06/stories/2003110600731000.htm [Accessed 1st February 2019).",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Mohan, C. Raja, (2003) ‘India and Sino-Pak ties’ (2003), *The Hindu* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.hinduonnet.com/2003/11/06/stories/2003110600731000.htm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019)."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 50,
      "raw_text": "Morgenthau, H. J. (1978) Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Morgenthau, H. J. (1978) Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, New York: Alfred A. Knopf."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 51,
      "raw_text": "Nathan, A. J. and Ross, R. S. (1997)The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress, London, W. W. Norton and Co.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Nathan, A. J. and Ross, R. S. (1997)*The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress*, London, W. W. Norton and Co."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 52,
      "raw_text": "Noorani, A. G. (2006) ‘China and South Asia’ in Frontline, 23:03.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Noorani, A. G. (2006) ‘China and South Asia’ in *Frontline,* 23:03."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 53,
      "raw_text": "O’ Leary, Greg. (1980) The Shaping of Chinese Foreign Policy, Abingdon, Taylor & Francis.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "O’ Leary, Greg. (1980) *The Shaping of Chinese Foreign Policy*, Abingdon, Taylor & Francis."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 54,
      "raw_text": "‘Pakistan, China forge closer ties’ (November 2003), BBC News [On line] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3232581.stm [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘Pakistan, China forge closer ties’ (November 2003), *BBC News* \\[On line\\] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3232581.stm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 55,
      "raw_text": "‘Pakistan will stand by China against US ‘siege’, says Rashid’ (February 23rd, 2006), Daily Times [Online] Available at: http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006\\02\\23\\story_23-2-2006_pg7_50 [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘Pakistan will stand by China against US ‘siege’, says Rashid’ (February 23rd, 2006), *Daily Times* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006\\02\\23\\story_23-2-2006_pg7_50 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 56,
      "raw_text": "Pan, E. (2006) ‘China and Pakistan: A Deepening Bond’, Council on Foreign Relations, [On line] Available at: http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070 [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Pan, E. (2006) ‘China and Pakistan: A Deepening Bond’, *Council on Foreign Relations,* \\[On line\\] Available at: http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 57,
      "raw_text": "Rajagopalan, Rajesh, (1999) ‘Neorealist theory and the India-Pakistan Conflict’ Strategic Analysis, [Online] Available at: http://www.ciaonet.org/olj/sa/sa_99rar01.html. [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Rajagopalan, Rajesh, (1999) ‘Neorealist theory and the India-Pakistan Conflict’ *Strategic Analysis,* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.ciaonet.org/olj/sa/sa_99rar01.html. \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 58,
      "raw_text": "Ram, R. (1983) Soviet Policy Towards Pakistan, New Delhi, S. Chand.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ram, R. (1983) *Soviet Policy Towards Pakistan*, New Delhi, S. Chand."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 59,
      "raw_text": "Ramachandran, Sudha, (2005) ‘China’s pearl in Pakistan’s waters’, Asia Times [Online] Available at: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/south_asia/gc04df06.html [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Ramachandran, Sudha, (2005) ‘China’s pearl in Pakistan’s waters’, *Asia Times* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/south_asia/gc04df06.html \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 60,
      "raw_text": "Rizvi, Hasan-Askari (1993) Pakistan and the Geostrategic Environment, Basingstoke, Macmillan.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Rizvi, Hasan-Askari (1993) *Pakistan and the Geostrategic Environment*, Basingstoke, Macmillan."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 61,
      "raw_text": "Robinson Thomas W. (1995) ‘Chinese Foreign Policy from the 1940s to the 1990s’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Robinson Thomas W. (1995) ‘Chinese Foreign Policy from the 1940s to the 1990s’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 62,
      "raw_text": "Roy, D. (1998) China’s Foreign Relations, Basingstoke, Macmillan.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Roy, D. (1998) *China’s Foreign Relations*, Basingstoke, Macmillan."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 63,
      "raw_text": "Sayeed, Khalid B.(1965) ‘Pakistan and China: The Scope and Limits of Convergent Policies’ in A. M. Halpern (ed) Policies Towards China: Views From Six Continents, New York, McGraw-Hill.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Sayeed, Khalid B.(1965) ‘Pakistan and China: The Scope and Limits of Convergent Policies’ in A. M. Halpern (ed) *Policies Towards China: Views From Six Continents,* New York, McGraw-Hill."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 64,
      "raw_text": "Scalapino, Robert A. (1993) ‘China’s Multiple Identities in East Asia’ in Dittmer L. and Kim, S. S. (ed) China’s Quest for National Identity, London, Cornell University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Scalapino, Robert A. (1993) ‘China’s Multiple Identities in East Asia’ in Dittmer L. and Kim, S. S. (ed) China’s *Quest for National Identity*, London, Cornell University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 65,
      "raw_text": "Schofield, J. (2014) Strategic Nuclear Sharing, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Schofield, J. (2014) *Strategic Nuclear Sharing,* New York, Palgrave Macmillan."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 66,
      "raw_text": "Shambaugh, D. (1995) ‘Sino-American Relations’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Shambaugh, D. (1995) ‘Sino-American Relations’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 67,
      "raw_text": "Shijia, Li, (2007) ‘Harmonious World: China’s Ancient Philosophy for New International Order’, Xinhua [Online] Available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/01/content_6821319.htm [Accessed 1st February 2019).",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Shijia, Li, (2007) ‘Harmonious World: China’s Ancient Philosophy for New International Order’, *Xinhua* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/01/content_6821319.htm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019)."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 68,
      "raw_text": "‘Sino-Indian relations and Pakistan’ (October 2003), Daily Times [Online] Available at: http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-10-2003_pg3_1 [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "‘Sino-Indian relations and Pakistan’ (October 2003), *Daily Times* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-10-2003_pg3_1 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 69,
      "raw_text": "Sirohi, Seema, (2008) ‘India walks the tightrope over Tibet’, BBC News [Online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7304228.stm [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Sirohi, Seema, (2008) ‘India walks the tightrope over Tibet’, *BBC News* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7304228.stm \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 70,
      "raw_text": "Spencer, Richard, (2008) ‘China and India have been on opposite sides since the Cold War’ The Daily Telegraph [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/2908868/China-and-India-have-been-on-opposite-sides-since-the-Cold-War.html [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Spencer, Richard, (2008) ‘China and India have been on opposite sides since the Cold War’ *The Daily Telegraph* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/2908868/China-and-India-have-been-on-opposite-sides-since-the-Cold-War.html \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 71,
      "raw_text": "Sudworth, J. (2019) ‘China's hidden camps’, BBC News [Online] Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/China_hidden_camps [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Sudworth, J. (2019) ‘China's hidden camps’, BBC News \\[Online\\] Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/China_hidden_camps \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 72,
      "raw_text": "Syed, Anwar H. (1974) China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale, Amherst, Oxford University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Syed, Anwar H. (1974) *China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale*, Amherst, Oxford University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 73,
      "raw_text": "Tharoor, Kanishk, (2008) ‘Tibet: India’s local politics’ Open Democracy [Online] Available at: http://www.opendemocracy.net/blog/kanishk_tharoor/tibet_indias_local_politics [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Tharoor, Kanishk, (2008) ‘Tibet: India’s local politics’ *Open Democracy* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.opendemocracy.net/blog/kanishk_tharoor/tibet_indias_local_politics \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 74,
      "raw_text": "Tow, William, T. (1995) ‘International Strategic System’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) Chinese Foreign Policy, Oxford, Clarendon Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Tow, William, T. (1995) ‘International Strategic System’ in Robinson T. W. and Shambaugh, D. (ed) *Chinese Foreign Policy*, Oxford, Clarendon Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 75,
      "raw_text": "Van Ness, P. (1993) ‘China as a Third World State: Foreign Policy and Official National Identity’ in Dittmer L. and Kim, S. S. (ed) China’s Quest for National Identity, London, Cornell University Press.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Van Ness, P. (1993) ‘China as a Third World State: Foreign Policy and Official National Identity’ in Dittmer L. and Kim, S. S. (ed) *China’s Quest for National Identity*, London, Cornell University Press."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 76,
      "raw_text": "Waltz, K. N. (1979) Theory of International Politics, Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Waltz, K. N. (1979) *Theory of International Politics*, Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 77,
      "raw_text": "Waltz, K. N (2000) ‘Structural Realism after the Cold War’ in International Security 25:1, 5-41.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Waltz, K. N (2000) ‘Structural Realism after the Cold War’ in International Security 25:1, 5-41."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 78,
      "raw_text": "Wirsing, R. (1998), India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute, Palgrave.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Wirsing, R. (1998), *India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute*, Palgrave."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 79,
      "raw_text": "Yu, Au Loong (2019) ‘China’s rise as a world power’ in International Viewpoint [Online] Available at: http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article6110 [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Yu, Au Loong (2019) ‘China’s rise as a world power’ in International Viewpoint \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article6110 \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 80,
      "raw_text": "Yuan, Jing-dong, (2003) ‘China and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: Anti-terrorism and Beijing’s Central Asian Policy’ in Politologiske Studier, 6:2, 128-139.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Yuan, Jing-dong, (2003) ‘China and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: Anti-terrorism and Beijing’s Central Asian Policy’ in *Politologiske Studier*, 6:2, 128-139."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 81,
      "raw_text": "Yuan, Jing-dong, (2005) ‘China’s Kashmir Policy’ Association for Asia Research [Online] Available at: http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2740.html [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Yuan, Jing-dong, (2005) ‘China’s Kashmir Policy’ *Association for Asia Research* \\[Online\\] Available at: http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2740.html \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 82,
      "raw_text": "Yuan, Jing-dong, (2007) ‘The Dragon and the Elephant: Chinese-Indian Relations in the 21st Century’ in The Washington Quarterly, 30:3, 131-144.",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Yuan, Jing-dong, (2007) ‘The Dragon and the Elephant: Chinese-Indian Relations in the 21st Century’ in *The Washington Quarterly,* 30:3, 131-144."
    },
    {
      "ordinal": 83,
      "raw_text": "Zehra, N. (2001) ‘The Chinese Veto that foiled India’s design on Kashmir’ in The News [Accessed 1st February 2019].",
      "doi": null,
      "markdown": "Zehra, N. (2001) ‘The Chinese Veto that foiled India’s design on Kashmir’ in *The News* \\[Accessed 1st February 2019\\]."
    }
  ],
  "notes": [
    "¹¹ ‘India and China are brothers’ in Hindi.",
    "¹² In this paper, the Pakistani state is referred to by the metonyms Karachi, Rawalpindi or Islamabad depending on which particular city was the seat of government at the relevant time.",
    "¹³ The position of New Delhi has been that Kashmir belongs within India, owing to the former ruler of the state acceding sovereignty to New Delhi in 1947, and because keeping hold of Muslim-majority Kashmir is an important symbol of Indian secularism.",
    "¹⁴ Garver records that Beijing has in the past also “encouraged any anti-Indian tendencies in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan” (Garver 1987:1205). However, as noted earlier, the capacity of these small countries to balance India has always been considerably less than that of Pakistan.",
    "¹⁵ Pakistan is not the only Chinese ‘nuclear protégé.’ North Korea became nuclear-capable with Beijing’s support. In each case, Beijing places its primary Asian rivals – India and Japan respectively – under greater pressure."
  ],
  "figures": [],
  "files": {
    "html": "index.html",
    "body_markdown": "body.md",
    "pdf": "article.pdf"
  },
  "word_count": 5924,
  "conversion_warnings": [
    "Source PDF has no text layer: body, abstract, footnotes and bibliography were rebuilt from Windows OCR text, reassembled in reading order and verified against 300 dpi page images (PDF pp. 53–68). Straight OCR quotes were converted to the curly quotes printed in the PDF; an editor may wish to spot-check punctuation.",
    "Footnotes are numbered 11–15 (numbering continues across the issue), kept as printed.",
    "Bibliography (83 entries) transcribed from the page images; URLs that wrap across lines were rejoined. Underscores in underlined URLs are partly hidden by the underline in the PDF (e.g. pinr.com ‘view_report’) and were restored where the URL pattern makes them evident.",
    "Author’s original spellings/typos retained verbatim (e.g. ‘Rajagolopalan 1999’ in text vs ‘Rajagopalan’ in the bibliography; ‘[Online[’; ‘Accessed … 2019)’)."
  ],
  "manifest_notes": "Single author; no footnote, affiliation or email on the article page; Contributors says only that he 'currently works in academic quality assurance'. Contents capitalises 'The 1960s'. Footnotes 11-12 (pdf 54), 13 (pdf 55), 14 (pdf 60), 15 (pdf 63); note text flows across both columns. Heading with italic transliteration \"The 'Hindi-Chini, bhai, bhai' period\" (pdf 54). Abstract has '£40bn' (OCR 'E40bn'). Indented block quotations (e.g. Mearsheimer, pdf 59). No figures or tables. Reference list headed 'Bibliography:' (pdf 65, right after Conclusion) and runs to pdf 68; superscript ordinals in '[Accessed 1st February 2019]'.",
  "source": {
    "pdf": "vol07-no1-2019.pdf",
    "ocr": true
  },
  "reviewed": true
}